maxwell

=Maxwell's Page= =The Decline of the Celts- the Later Years = [|Approximately 300 BCE-1st Century BC] Maxwell's Bibliography Essay Back To Main Pictures Note: some words are hyper linked to the Vocabulary section at the bottom of the page for reference

**__Climate and Geographic Factors __**
Climate was varied as the location of the Celts had varied over the years. Typically wet and moist with mild temperatures.

Celts inhabited much of Ireland to as far east to Germany, thus the varied temperatures and conditions.

__Events & Leaders__
-Clans and groups gave way to more powerful kingdoms ruled by kings and queens (5) (10) - Boudicca was the queen of Iceni and was the most well known power figure of the Celts (1) - Dio Cassius described her as “She was very tall, the glance of her eye most fierce; her voice harsh. A great mass of the reddest hair fell down to her hips. Around her neck was a large golden necklace, and she always wore a tunic of many colours over which she fastened a thick cloak with a broach. Her appearance was terrifying.”(1) -After the death of Boudicca's husband the Romans, seeing an opportunity to gain control of Iceni they gained control of the kingdom and the royal palace and whipped Boudicca, and raped her daughters (1) -This caused Boudiccato revolt against the Romans with help from the Trinovantes (1) -They destroyed the colony of Camulodunum (now Colchester ), ruined the port of Londinium ( London ) and Verulamium ( St Albans ), the capital of the Catuvellauni, one of groups who sided with the Romans (1) -Roman historian Tacitus said the Celts killed about 70,000 Romans (1) -The Romans quickly brought in reinforcements and destroyed Boudiccato's army and she was either killed by poison or died from illness which is still up for debate (1) -This would be the last revolt against the Romans in Britain, but the Roman emperor Nero was upset when he heard of the harsh treatment against the Celts after the revolt that the conditions improved dramatically after the revolt (1) -The image of the brave and heroic Boudicca has inspired many books and a bronze statue of Boudicca and her daughters was erected at Victoria Embankment, London, in 1902 (1) - Brennus a Celtic chief who lead an successful attack on Greece in 279 BCE. He was stopped at the pass of Thermopylae but got around the blockade by going through the mountains. He committed suicide after an unsuccessful attack upon Delphi in 279 BCE. (2) - Vercingetorix, was the leader of the Celtic army as a revolt against the advancement of the Romans across Europe. He lead an attack against the Romans and Cesar but was later held under siege at Alesia, present day Dijion. (3) -41AD he surrendered to the Romans, was held captive in Rome and publicly executed in 46 AD (3)

Optional Topics:


 -Marked themselves with personal ornaments to recognize the elite upper class and indicate gender, age, status, and wealth -Each clan had a king called a ri but this did not mean they had absolute power -if the ri did not perform to the standards of his people he could be kicked out or killed -Ri's had to a) provided land and livestock b) provide jerely or other symbols of wealth c) settled disputes d) support an oenach -Oenach seating and amount of food would be decided by class, status and occupation with the best seated to the right of the Ri -Samhain was the Celtic new year celebration which was sinificant to the Celts as the weather grew worse and farms closed for the winter -Samhain remenants can be found in Halloween and All Saints' Eve (10) 

**__Industrial and Artistic Technology__ **
-Celts were very good at working with metals, they used two metalworking techniques that were the most commonly used

-Was used in casting a hollow metal sculpture -Hammered on inner side to produce a positive -Then hammered back to produce a depth -Scratching and chiseling could decorate a plain surface
 * Cire Perdue Process ** (4)

-Hammered in sections were filled with powdered glass -Then it would be heated to heating point, which turns the glass to enamel -Other rocks could be inlaid to produce a stunning multicolored effect
 * Champlevé or "raised field” technique** (4)

**__Transportation and Weaponry__ **
-Warfare regarded as a very important part of life with Celts -Used Chariots and Swords decorated with lavish designs -Also thought Weaponry to be gift from gods -Upon death of a solider small daggers would be buried with them -Shields were also used, made of either wood and leather, but sometimes bronze shield covers were used -Swords were similar to that of King Arthur's famous sword -Large hill forts and complex system of ramparts and other defenses were built such as Maiden Castle -Before 300 BCE Celts fought naked with only body paint, a shield, torc and a sword -A feared instrument was the carnyx -Celts had simple yet effective battle tactics -The Enemy would be taunted and dehumanized, then they would charge first followed by a long line of warriors -Attempted to make them scared and run away -WW1 soldiers discovered in Somme skeletal remains of warriors with trauma after digging trenches -a battle was fought in 290 BCE between two Celtic tribes, this means that Celtic Europe was a collection of small tribes and kingdoms -Not one skeleton of the Victorious tribe or losing tribe were found and were clearly cut off by some sort of knife


  (6) (7)(11)

**__Art, Literature and Music__ **
-Excelled during mid 1st century -Extinguished by Romans conquest of Gual, Germany and Britain -First begun by Hallstatt culture (Celtic) 6th century BCE which was centered in Switzerland -Followed by La Tene culture -It is divided into styles by Paul Jacobsthal in his book //Early Celtic Art (1944)//

-Mostly found at graves of chieftains in Germany and France -Includes Torcs and bracelets which were inspired by Greeks
 * The Early Style (480-350 bce )**

-Named after burial site near Bonn, Germany -Influenced by expansion into Greece and Italy -More freer use of classical models
 * The Waldalgesheim Style (350-290 bce )**

-More prominent in Western parts of Celtic tribes -Human and Animal representation becomes more common -3 dimensional becomes more common
 * The Plastic Style (290-190 bce )**

-Named after engravings on swords -More 2 dimensional in contrast with Plastic style -More common in Eastern parts of Europe
 * The Sword Style (after 190 bce )**

-Certain doubts on whether these styles apply to Eastern and Western extremities of Celtic Tribes due to the fact much of these findings were located in west-central strongholds of Celtic Culture -Celtic art is more known today for engravings on metals -Much of this art survived due to it being buried with chiefs -Both Men & Women wore jewelry -Demonstrated wealth and social status -Torcs were the regarded as the highest symbol (9) -Bronze Mirrors were produced and regarded as the finest abstract art produced by the Celts -Produced pottery but is not regarded as much importance, they didn't attempt to reproduce the pottery by the Greeks but did value high grade Greek art -Coins were produced by every kingdom, which got much of its influence from Greek coins. This is one of the best ways to identify individual tribes.  (8) (9) (12)

Vocabulary
Note: some words are hyper linked to the Vocabulary section at the bottom of the page for reference  **Hallstatt Culture**: early Iron Age culture in central and western Europe, designated UNESCO world heritage site
 * Torc** (also spelled torque): a metal collar or armband worn by the ancient Gauls and Britons
 * Champlevé**: (french) raised field
 * Maiden Castle**: Iron Age hill fort, 2.5 km south-west of Dorchester in Dorset. One of the largest in England, Maiden Castle is defended by several lines of ramparts and a complex system of ditches. It covers an area of 47 acres.
 * Ramparts**; a defensive fortification made of an earthen embankment, often topped by a low protective wall
 * Dio Cassius: **150-235, Roman historian and politician
 * Iceni**: present day Norfolk and Suffolk
 * Carnyx//://** an Iron-Age musical instrument, made to frighten the enemy
 * Oenach**: an assembly, or fair were citizens of clans would gather to reconnect, to guess strength of rival clans, and to look for marriage partners
 * Samhain **: new years, celebrated October 31st