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-the lived near the Danube River valley, near the Pyrenee mountains (Cunliffe) -rugged uplands dominate the landscape (Charles) -deep wide-mouthed bays separate the mountains (Charles) -coast subject to landslides (Charles) -Celts expanded to cover all of western Europe, from Austria to the Atlantic Ocean and up to the North Sea (excluding the Scandanavian land mass). (Cunliffe)
 * CLIMATE AND GEOGRAPHIC FACTORS**

614-576 BC reign of the Elder Tarquin ( Cunliffe) 400 BC—200BC Celts’ aggressive expansion lasted over two centuries (Cunliffe) 400 BC Celtic aristocratic society split apart; Celts arrive into what is now northern Italy. (Cunliffe) 400 BC Celtic settlement of La Tene into northeastern Hungary (Cunliffe) 390 BC Celts arrive at the gates of Rome and for 50 years remain a threat to the destruction of Rome (Cunliffe) 350 BC fighting the Illyrians which we now call Yugoslavia (Cunliffe) 295 BC Celts in full retreat away from Rome. (Cunliffe) 279 BC Celts deep conquest into Greece (Cunliffe) 180 BC Celts had settled into Central Europe (Cunliffe) 200 BC leadership of Arverni developed military force for possible danger along Mediterranean coastal region (Cunliffe) 125 BC attacked territory of Massilin (Cunliffe) 125-121 BC Romans gain a foothold into Gaul with the final confrontation and virtual annihilation of these Celts. (Cunliffe) 107 BC victory of Volcae Tectosages over the Roman army. This was the only significant battle fought against Romans on Gallic soil won by the Celts. (Cunliffe) Roman Caesar moves against Gaul in 58BC ( Cunliffe) Romans fought Celts in Britain 55-43 B.C. and Wales 70 A.D. ( Cunliffe) HADRIAN BUILT A WALL ACROSS BRITAN about 122A.D. but the Celts came down from Scotland about 155 and 181 AD ( Cunliffe) All Scottish kings are derived from a common ancestor “Fergus mac erc” (Chadwick 59) “the most one can say with confidence is that there was probably a Celtic chief called Arthur who met his death in battle against the saxons (Chadwick 47) Technology; -bronze and copper works were mastered about 4,000 BC—2,000B.C. ( Cunliffe14.) -Celtic use of coins began about 200B.C. copying the Greeks and Macedonians ( Cunliffe 26.) -the Celts technology of suing certain materials was not surpassed until 1700 AD (Cunliffe 24) this included using graphite and hematite to decorate pottery, use of iron, copper, coral, silver, gold, amber and glass. -bronze swords were replaced with iron swords (Cunliffe 24.) -the druids understood astronomy, the annual calendar, medicine, ( Cunliffe110) -druids were exempt from attending military service (Cunliffe 108) -horses were widely in use by about 700 B.C. (Charles 50) -cavalry played an important part in Celtic war fare ( Charles 50) and in peace time. -two horses pulled a chariot which held its driver and a chieftain ( Charles 50) -By 700 BC Celts had high technical skills for making bronze into art. ( Charles 24)
 * EVENTS AND LEADERS**
 * INDUSTRIAL AND ARTISTIC TECHNOLOGY**
 * TRANSPORATION AND WEAPONRY**

//Weaponry// -acquainted with the testudo formation (Nossov 53) Wheeled mobile shed used for protection when operating a battering ram, destroying a wall at the supports, or filling up a ditch -warriors protecting themselves with shield and from attack on the front, sides and from above used in assault on forts. (Nossov 55) Principle tactics: surprise attack on a territory Followed by a speedy withdrawal (Nossov 56) -stones were case from slings or even by hand (Nossov 56) -Celts were all tall and despised the small height of the roman enemies. (Nossov 54) -adoptive in heat of battle Roman siege as a aquitarian town by rassus (Nossov 53)

//Defensive maneuvers// -wall construction (Nossov 54) -dug tunnels (Nossov 55) -under embankments (Nossov 55) -constructed sorties (Nossov 53) -mastered the methods of fighting siege weapons by the end of the Gallic war.(Nossov 55) -resourceful when creating earthwork fortifications (Nossov 54) Eg.using tools they already had

// Economy // -the culture had a focus at Hallstatt, (now Austria) 800BC – 600BC because of salt deposits located there. Salt was mined in part by diverting a river and collecting salt in large vats (Cunliffe 115) - This community grew rich by mining and trading its own salt for objects in trade. This location was a key point along a trade route from the Baltic Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. -mining was done by placing wood near to a rock face, set it on fire, throw cold water on the rocks, the rocks cracked ad were easier to crumble with the use of picks and axes –shaft mining was done in winter with up to 180 men dragging ore on a sledge (Cunliffe114) -about 700 BC, the Iron Age passed along from influences in Naples and Elba and began here near the Danube river, (Cunliffe 112) Ore was oasted, mixed with charcoal (Cunliffe 113),heated to 900 degrees centigrade in small furnaces like a cottage industry.
 * AGRICULTURE AND THE ECONOMY**

//Art// -representations were often of trumpets, shields, and horses (Cunliffe 27) -representation of the human face was quite simple. Only after Roman influences did representations of human figures become common (Cunliffe 26) -art did not often depict reality; it was abstract waves, lines and woven patterns. (Cunliffe 98) -some statues showed a person in motion (Cunliffe101) -an artwork of a horse is etched into the hillside about 100 BC at Uffington England and this is maintained by cutting away any grasses over a huge field. -many statues were made from wood and did not survive (Cunliffe26). -art that did survive for us to see includes decorated axe handles, pails, and many objects were decorated with picture of a battle and/or horses. -Carved stone pillars often had a face on each of four sides. (Cunliffe27) -Ornaments worn by the wealthy; gold ring, brooch to pin a shawl. (Cunliffe 25) //Literature and Music// -poetry was sung by the bards who protected copyright and entertained (Cunliffe10) -oral literature was passed down generations and passed history lessons (Cunliffe30 & 106.) -great long sagas were retold at community gatherings. (Cunliffe30) -ancient myths describe superstition and exploits (Squire 22-26)
 * ART LITERATURE AND MUSIC**